This is ../info/emacs, produced by makeinfo version 4.0 from emacs.texi.
This is the thirteenth edition of the `GNU Emacs Manual', updated
for Emacs version 20.7.
INFO-DIR-SECTION Editors
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Emacs: (emacs). The extensible self-documenting text editor.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
Published by the Free Software Foundation 59 Temple Place, Suite 330
Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998,
1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto", "Distribution" and "GNU
General Public License" are included exactly as in the original, and
provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the
terms of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto",
"Distribution" and "GNU General Public License" may be included in a
translation approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the
original English.
File: emacs, Node: Files, Next: Buffers, Prev: Fixit, Up: Top
File Handling
*************
The operating system stores data permanently in named "files". So
most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately
stored in a file.
To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a
buffer containing a copy of the file's text. This is called "visiting"
the file. Editing commands apply directly to text in the buffer; that
is, to the copy inside Emacs. Your changes appear in the file itself
only when you "save" the buffer back into the file.
In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy,
rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate
on file directories.
* Menu:
* File Names:: How to type and edit file-name arguments.
* Visiting:: Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file.
* Saving:: Saving makes your changes permanent.
* Reverting:: Reverting cancels all the changes not saved.
* Auto Save:: Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data.
* File Aliases:: Handling multiple names for one file.
* Version Control:: Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS).
* Directories:: Creating, deleting, and listing file directories.
* Comparing Files:: Finding where two files differ.
* Misc File Ops:: Other things you can do on files.
* Compressed Files:: Accessing compressed files.
* Remote Files:: Accessing files on other sites.
* Quoted File Names:: Quoting special characters in file names.
File: emacs, Node: File Names, Next: Visiting, Up: Files
File Names
==========
Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the
file name. (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which
file name to use for them.) You enter the file name using the
minibuffer (*note Minibuffer::). "Completion" is available, to make it
easier to specify long file names. *Note Completion::.
For most operations, there is a "default file name" which is used if
you type just <RET> to enter an empty argument. Normally the default
file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer; this
makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file
commands.
Each buffer has a default directory, normally the same as the
directory of the file visited in that buffer. When you enter a file
name without a directory, the default directory is used. If you specify
a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with
a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory. The
default directory is kept in the variable `default-directory', which
has a separate value in every buffer.
For example, if the default file name is `/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks' then
the default directory is `/u/rms/gnu/'. If you type just `foo', which
does not specify a directory, it is short for `/u/rms/gnu/foo'.
`../.login' would stand for `/u/rms/.login'. `new/foo' would stand for
the file name `/u/rms/gnu/new/foo'.
The command `M-x pwd' prints the current buffer's default directory,
and the command `M-x cd' sets it (to a value read using the
minibuffer). A buffer's default directory changes only when the `cd'
command is used. A file-visiting buffer's default directory is
initialized to the directory of the file that is visited there. If you
create a buffer with `C-x b', its default directory is copied from that
of the buffer that was current at the time.
The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the
minibuffer becomes active to read a file name. This serves two
purposes: it _shows_ you what the default is, so that you can type a
relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it
allows you to _edit_ the default to specify a different directory.
This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable
`insert-default-directory' is set to `nil'.
Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you
enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory
name as part of the text. The final minibuffer contents may look
invalid, but that is not so. For example, if the minibuffer starts out
with `/usr/tmp/' and you add `/x1/rms/foo', you get
`/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo'; but Emacs ignores everything through the first
slash in the double slash; the result is `/x1/rms/foo'. *Note
Minibuffer File::.
`$' in a file name is used to substitute environment variables. For
example, if you have used the shell command `export FOO=rms/hacks' to
set up an environment variable named `FOO', then you can use
`/u/$FOO/test.c' or `/u/${FOO}/test.c' as an abbreviation for
`/u/rms/hacks/test.c'. The environment variable name consists of all
the alphanumeric characters after the `$'; alternatively, it may be
enclosed in braces after the `$'. Note that shell commands to set
environment variables affect Emacs only if done before Emacs is started.
To access a file with `$' in its name, type `$$'. This pair is
converted to a single `$' at the same time as variable substitution is
performed for single `$'. Alternatively, quote the whole file name
with `/:' (*note Quoted File Names::).
The Lisp function that performs the substitution is called
`substitute-in-file-name'. The substitution is performed only on file
names read as such using the minibuffer.
You can include non-ASCII characters in file names if you set the
variable `file-name-coding-system' to a non-`nil' value. *Note Specify
Coding::.
File: emacs, Node: Visiting, Next: Saving, Prev: File Names, Up: Files
Visiting Files
==============
`C-x C-f'
Visit a file (`find-file').
`C-x C-r'
Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it
(`find-file-read-only').
`C-x C-v'
Visit a different file instead of the one visited last
(`find-alternate-file').
`C-x 4 f'
Visit a file, in another window (`find-file-other-window'). Don't
alter what is displayed in the selected window.
`C-x 5 f'
Visit a file, in a new frame (`find-file-other-frame'). Don't
alter what is displayed in the selected frame.
`M-x find-file-literally'
Visit a file with no conversion of the contents.
"Visiting" a file means copying its contents into an Emacs buffer so
you can edit them. Emacs makes a new buffer for each file that you
visit. We say that this buffer is visiting the file that it was created
to hold. Emacs constructs the buffer name from the file name by
throwing away the directory, keeping just the name proper. For example,
a file named `/usr/rms/emacs.tex' would get a buffer named `emacs.tex'.
If there is already a buffer with that name, a unique name is
constructed by appending `<2>', `<3>', or so on, using the lowest
number that makes a name that is not already in use.
Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being
displayed in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are
editing.
The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs
buffer. They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any
place permanent, until you "save" the buffer. Saving the buffer means
that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its visited
file. *Note Saving::.
If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the
buffer is "modified". This is important because it implies that some
changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved. The mode line
displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is
modified.
To visit a file, use the command `C-x C-f' (`find-file'). Follow
the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a
<RET>.
The file name is read using the minibuffer (*note Minibuffer::), with
defaulting and completion in the standard manner (*note File Names::).
While in the minibuffer, you can abort `C-x C-f' by typing `C-g'.
Your confirmation that `C-x C-f' has completed successfully is the
appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the mode
line. If the specified file does not exist and could not be created, or
cannot be read, then you get an error, with an error message displayed
in the echo area.
If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, `C-x C-f' does not make
another copy. It selects the existing buffer containing that file.
However, before doing so, it checks that the file itself has not changed
since you visited or saved it last. If the file has changed, a warning
message is printed. *Note Simultaneous Editing: Interlocking.
What if you want to create a new file? Just visit it. Emacs prints
`(New File)' in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if you
had visited an existing empty file. If you make any changes and save
them, the file is created.
Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which convention it uses
to separate lines--newline (used on GNU/Linux and on Unix),
carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or just
carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)--and automatically converts the
contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that the newline
character separates lines. This is a part of the general feature of
coding system conversion (*note Coding Systems::), and makes it possible
to edit files imported from various different operating systems with
equal convenience. If you change the text and save the file, Emacs
performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back into
carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate.
If the file you specify is actually a directory, `C-x C-f' invokes
Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can "edit" the contents
of the directory (*note Dired::). Dired is a convenient way to delete,
look at, or operate on the files in the directory. However, if the
variable `find-file-run-dired' is `nil', then it is an error to try to
visit a directory.
If the file name you specify contains wildcard characters, Emacs
visits all the files that match it. *Note Quoted File Names::, if you
want to visit a file whose name actually contains wildcard characters.
If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify,
Emacs makes the buffer read-only, so that you won't go ahead and make
changes that you'll have trouble saving afterward. You can make the
buffer writable with `C-x C-q' (`vc-toggle-read-only'). *Note Misc
Buffer::.
Occasionally you might want to visit a file as read-only in order to
protect yourself from entering changes accidentally; do so by visiting
the file with the command `C-x C-r' (`find-file-read-only').
If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed
the wrong file name), use the `C-x C-v' command (`find-alternate-file')
to visit the file you really wanted. `C-x C-v' is similar to `C-x
C-f', but it kills the current buffer (after first offering to save it
if it is modified). When it reads the file name to visit, it inserts
the entire default file name in the buffer, with point just after the
directory part; this is convenient if you made a slight error in typing
the name.
If you find a file which exists but cannot be read, `C-x C-f'
signals an error.
`C-x 4 f' (`find-file-other-window') is like `C-x C-f' except that
the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another window.
The window that was selected before `C-x 4 f' continues to show the
same buffer it was already showing. If this command is used when only
one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one
window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the
newly requested file. *Note Windows::.
`C-x 5 f' (`find-file-other-frame') is similar, but opens a new
frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you seek.
This feature is available only when you are using a window system.
*Note Frames::.
If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of characters with no
special encoding or conversion, use the `M-x find-file-literally'
command. It visits a file, like `C-x C-f', but does not do format
conversion (*note Formatted Text::), character code conversion (*note
Coding Systems::), or automatic uncompression (*note Compressed
Files::). If you already have visited the same file in the usual
(non-literal) manner, this command asks you whether to visit it
literally instead.
Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation
of visiting files. Visiting a file that does not exist runs the
functions in the list `find-file-not-found-hooks'; this variable holds
a list of functions, and the functions are called one by one until one
of them returns non-`nil'. Any visiting of a file, whether extant or
not, expects `find-file-hooks' to contain a list of functions and calls
them all, one by one. In both cases the functions receive no
arguments. Of these two variables, `find-file-not-found-hooks' takes
effect first. These variables are _not_ normal hooks, and their names
end in `-hooks' rather than `-hook' to indicate that fact. *Note
Hooks::.
There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for
editing the file (*note Choosing Modes::), and to specify local
variables defined for that file (*note File Variables::).
File: emacs, Node: Saving, Next: Reverting, Prev: Visiting, Up: Files
Saving Files
============
"Saving" a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the
file that was visited in the buffer.
`C-x C-s'
Save the current buffer in its visited file (`save-buffer').
`C-x s'
Save any or all buffers in their visited files
(`save-some-buffers').
`M-~'
Forget that the current buffer has been changed (`not-modified').
`C-x C-w'
Save the current buffer in a specified file (`write-file').
`M-x set-visited-file-name'
Change file the name under which the current buffer will be saved.
When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type
`C-x C-s' (`save-buffer'). After saving is finished, `C-x C-s'
displays a message like this:
Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks
If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it
since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done,
because it would have no effect. Instead, `C-x C-s' displays a message
like this in the echo area:
(No changes need to be saved)
The command `C-x s' (`save-some-buffers') offers to save any or all
modified buffers. It asks you what to do with each buffer. The
possible responses are analogous to those of `query-replace':
`y'
Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers.
`n'
Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers.
`!'
Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions.
`<RET>'
Terminate `save-some-buffers' without any more saving.
`.'
Save this buffer, then exit `save-some-buffers' without even asking
about other buffers.
`C-r'
View the buffer that you are currently being asked about. When
you exit View mode, you get back to `save-some-buffers', which
asks the question again.
`C-h'
Display a help message about these options.
`C-x C-c', the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes
`save-some-buffers' and therefore asks the same questions.
If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes,
you should take some action to prevent it. Otherwise, each time you use
`C-x s' or `C-x C-c', you are liable to save this buffer by mistake.
One thing you can do is type `M-~' (`not-modified'), which clears out
the indication that the buffer is modified. If you do this, none of
the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be saved. (`~'
is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus `M-~' is `not',
metafied.) You could also use `set-visited-file-name' (see below) to
mark the buffer as visiting a different file name, one which is not in
use for anything important. Alternatively, you can cancel all the
changes made since the file was visited or saved, by reading the text
from the file again. This is called "reverting". *Note Reverting::.
You could also undo all the changes by repeating the undo command `C-x
u' until you have undone all the changes; but reverting is easier.
`M-x set-visited-file-name' alters the name of the file that the
current buffer is visiting. It reads the new file name using the
minibuffer. Then it specifies the visited file name and changes the
buffer name correspondingly (as long as the new name is not in use).
`set-visited-file-name' does not save the buffer in the newly visited
file; it just alters the records inside Emacs in case you do save
later. It also marks the buffer as "modified" so that `C-x C-s' in
that buffer _will_ save.
If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save
it right away, use `C-x C-w' (`write-file'). It is precisely
equivalent to `set-visited-file-name' followed by `C-x C-s'. `C-x C-s'
used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the same effect as
`C-x C-w'; that is, it reads a file name, marks the buffer as visiting
that file, and saves it there. The default file name in a buffer that
is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name with the
buffer's default directory.
If the new file name implies a major mode, then `C-x C-w' switches
to that major mode, in most cases. The command `set-visited-file-name'
also does this. *Note Choosing Modes::.
If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest
version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs
notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem
caused by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention.
*Note Simultaneous Editing: Interlocking.
If the variable `require-final-newline' is non-`nil', Emacs puts a
newline at the end of any file that doesn't already end in one, every
time a file is saved or written. The default is `nil'.
* Menu:
* Backup:: How Emacs saves the old version of your file.
* Interlocking:: How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing
of one file by two users.
File: emacs, Node: Backup, Next: Interlocking, Up: Saving
Backup Files
------------
On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys
all record of what the file used to contain. Thus, saving a file from
Emacs throws away the old contents of the file--or it would, except that
Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the
"backup" file, before actually saving.
For most files, the variable `make-backup-files' determines whether
to make backup files. On most operating systems, its default value is
`t', so that Emacs does write backup files.
For files managed by a version control system (*note Version
Control::), the variable `vc-make-backup-files' determines whether to
make backup files. By default, it is `nil', since backup files are
redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version control
system. *Note VC Workfile Handling::.
The default value of the `backup-enable-predicate' variable prevents
backup files being written for files in `/tmp'.
At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup file or a
series of numbered backup files for each file that you edit.
Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved
from one buffer. No matter how many times you save a file, its backup
file continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited.
Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from
before the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and
then visit the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next
save.
You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a
buffer even though it has already been saved at least once. If you save
the buffer with `C-u C-x C-s', the version thus saved will be made into
a backup file if you save the buffer again. `C-u C-u C-x C-s' saves
the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new
backup file. `C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s' does both things: it makes a backup
from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the newly
saved contents, if you save again.
* Menu:
* Names: Backup Names. How backup files are named;
choosing single or numbered backup files.
* Deletion: Backup Deletion. Emacs deletes excess numbered backups.
* Copying: Backup Copying. Backups can be made by copying or renaming.
File: emacs, Node: Backup Names, Next: Backup Deletion, Up: Backup
Single or Numbered Backups
..........................
If you choose to have a single backup file (this is the default),
the backup file's name is constructed by appending `~' to the file name
being edited; thus, the backup file for `eval.c' would be `eval.c~'.
If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file
names are made by appending `.~', the number, and another `~' to the
original file name. Thus, the backup files of `eval.c' would be called
`eval.c.~1~', `eval.c.~2~', and so on, through names like
`eval.c.~259~' and beyond.
If protection stops you from writing backup files under the usual
names, the backup file is written as `%backup%~' in your home directory.
Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently made such
backup is available.
The choice of single backup or numbered backups is controlled by the
variable `version-control'. Its possible values are
`t'
Make numbered backups.
`nil'
Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already.
Otherwise, make single backups.
`never'
Do not in any case make numbered backups; always make single
backups.
You can set `version-control' locally in an individual buffer to
control the making of backups for that buffer's file. For example,
Rmail mode locally sets `version-control' to `never' to make sure that
there is only one backup for an Rmail file. *Note Locals::.
If you set the environment variable `VERSION_CONTROL', to tell
various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the
environment variable by setting the Lisp variable `version-control'
accordingly at startup. If the environment variable's value is `t' or
`numbered', then `version-control' becomes `t'; if the value is `nil'
or `existing', then `version-control' becomes `nil'; if it is `never'
or `simple', then `version-control' becomes `never'.
File: emacs, Node: Backup Deletion, Next: Backup Copying, Prev: Backup Names, Up: Backup
Automatic Deletion of Backups
.............................
To prevent unlimited consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete
numbered backup versions automatically. Generally Emacs keeps the
first few backups and the latest few backups, deleting any in between.
This happens every time a new backup is made.
The two variables `kept-old-versions' and `kept-new-versions'
control this deletion. Their values are, respectively the number of
oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep and the number of newest
(highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a new backup is made.
Recall that these values are used just after a new backup version is
made; that newly made backup is included in the count in
`kept-new-versions'. By default, both variables are 2.
If `delete-old-versions' is non-`nil', the excess middle versions
are deleted without a murmur. If it is `nil', the default, then you
are asked whether the excess middle versions should really be deleted.
Dired's `.' (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions.
*Note Dired Deletion::.
File: emacs, Node: Backup Copying, Prev: Backup Deletion, Up: Backup
Copying vs. Renaming
....................
Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it.
This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names. If the
old file is renamed into the backup file, then the alternate names
become names for the backup file. If the old file is copied instead,
then the alternate names remain names for the file that you are
editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be the new
contents.
The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner
and group. If copying is used, these do not change. If renaming is
used, you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the
default (different operating systems have different defaults for the
group).
Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the
owner always shows who last edited the file. Also, the owners of the
backups show who produced those versions. Occasionally there is a file
whose owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to
contain local variable lists to set `backup-by-copying-when-mismatch'
locally (*note File Variables::).
The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by three variables.
Renaming is the default choice. If the variable `backup-by-copying' is
non-`nil', copying is used. Otherwise, if the variable
`backup-by-copying-when-linked' is non-`nil', then copying is used for
files that have multiple names, but renaming may still be used when the
file being edited has only one name. If the variable
`backup-by-copying-when-mismatch' is non-`nil', then copying is used if
renaming would cause the file's owner or group to change.
`backup-by-copying-when-mismatch' is `t' by default if you start Emacs
as the superuser.
When a file is managed with a version control system (*note Version
Control::), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for
that file. But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to
making backups. One unfortunate similarity is that these operations
typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from
any alternate names for the same file. This has nothing to do with
Emacs--the version control system does it.
File: emacs, Node: Interlocking, Prev: Backup, Up: Saving
Protection against Simultaneous Editing
---------------------------------------
Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both
make changes, and then both save them. If nobody were informed that
this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his
changes were lost.
On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user
starts to change the file, and issues an immediate warning. On all
systems, Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are
about to overwrite another user's changes. You can prevent loss of the
other user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of
saving the file.
When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is
visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is "locked" by you. (It
does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a
different name.) Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes. The
idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has
unsaved changes.
If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by
someone else, this constitutes a "collision". When Emacs detects a
collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function
`ask-user-about-lock'. You can redefine this function for the sake of
customization. The standard definition of this function asks you a
question and accepts three possible answers:
`s'
Steal the lock. Whoever was already changing the file loses the
lock, and you gain the lock.
`p'
Proceed. Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by
someone else.
`q'
Quit. This causes an error (`file-locked') and the modification
you were trying to make in the buffer does not actually take place.
Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has
multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same
file and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under
different names. However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can
interlock the editing of new files that will not really exist until
they are saved.
Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and
there are cases where lock files cannot be written. In these cases,
Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the
collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's
changes.
If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock
files which are stale. So you may occasionally get warnings about
spurious collisions. When you determine that the collision is spurious,
just use `p' to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway.
Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the
last-modification date of the existing file on disk to verify that it
has not changed since the file was last visited or saved. If the date
does not match, it implies that changes were made in the file in some
other way, and these changes are about to be lost if Emacs actually
does save. To prevent this, Emacs prints a warning message and asks
for confirmation before saving. Occasionally you will know why the
file was changed and know that it does not matter; then you can answer
`yes' and proceed. Otherwise, you should cancel the save with `C-g'
and investigate the situation.
The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing
has already taken place is to list the directory with `C-u C-x C-d'
(*note Directories::). This shows the file's current author. You
should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing.
Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a
different name, and use `diff' to compare the two files.
File: emacs, Node: Reverting, Next: Auto Save, Prev: Saving, Up: Files
Reverting a Buffer
==================
If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your
mind about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous
version of the file. To do this, use `M-x revert-buffer', which
operates on the current buffer. Since reverting a buffer
unintentionally could lose a lot of work, you must confirm this command
with `yes'.
`revert-buffer' keeps point at the same distance (measured in
characters) from the beginning of the file. If the file was edited only
slightly, you will be at approximately the same piece of text after
reverting as before. If you have made drastic changes, the same value
of point in the old file may address a totally different piece of text.
Reverting marks the buffer as "not modified" until another change is
made.
Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than
files, such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted. For them,
reverting means recalculating their contents from the appropriate data
base. Buffers created explicitly with `C-x b' cannot be reverted;
`revert-buffer' reports an error when asked to do so.
When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently--for
example, a log of output from a process that continues to run--it may be
useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you
visit the file again with `C-x C-f'.
To request this behavior, set the variable `revert-without-query' to
a list of regular expressions. When a file name matches one of these
regular expressions, `find-file' and `revert-buffer' will revert it
automatically if it has changed--provided the buffer itself is not
modified. (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to discard
your changes.)
File: emacs, Node: Auto Save, Next: File Aliases, Prev: Reverting, Up: Files
Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters
=========================================
Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on
counting your keystrokes) without being asked. This is called
"auto-saving". It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount
of work if the system crashes.
When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, each buffer is
considered, and is auto-saved if auto-saving is turned on for it and it
has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved. The message
`Auto-saving...' is displayed in the echo area during auto-saving, if
any files are actually auto-saved. Errors occurring during auto-saving
are caught so that they do not interfere with the execution of commands
you have been typing.
* Menu:
* Files: Auto Save Files. The file where auto-saved changes are
actually made until you save the file.
* Control: Auto Save Control. Controlling when and how often to auto-save.
* Recover:: Recovering text from auto-save files.
File: emacs, Node: Auto Save Files, Next: Auto Save Control, Up: Auto Save
Auto-Save Files
---------------
Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited,
because it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an
inconsistent state when you have made half of a planned change.
Instead, auto-saving is done in a different file called the "auto-save
file", and the visited file is changed only when you request saving
explicitly (such as with `C-x C-s').
Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending `#' to the
front and rear of the visited file name. Thus, a buffer visiting file
`foo.c' is auto-saved in a file `#foo.c#'. Most buffers that are not
visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly; when
they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending `#%'
to the front and `#' to the rear of buffer name. For example, the
`*mail*' buffer in which you compose messages to be sent is auto-saved
in a file named `#%*mail*#'. Auto-save file names are made this way
unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do something different (the
functions `make-auto-save-file-name' and `auto-save-file-name-p'). The
file name to be used for auto-saving in a buffer is calculated when
auto-saving is turned on in that buffer.
When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer,
auto save turns off temporarily in that buffer. This is because if you
deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more
useful if it contains the deleted text. To reenable auto-saving after
this happens, save the buffer with `C-x C-s', or use `C-u 1 M-x
auto-save'.
If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file, set the
variable `auto-save-visited-file-name' to be non-`nil'. In this mode,
there is really no difference between auto-saving and explicit saving.
A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its
visited file. To inhibit this, set the variable
`delete-auto-save-files' to `nil'. Changing the visited file name with
`C-x C-w' or `set-visited-file-name' renames any auto-save file to go
with the new visited name.
File: emacs, Node: Auto Save Control, Next: Recover, Prev: Auto Save Files, Up: Auto Save
Controlling Auto-Saving
-----------------------
Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's
buffer if the variable `auto-save-default' is non-`nil' (but not in
batch mode; *note Entering Emacs::). The default for this variable is
`t', so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers.
Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the
command `M-x auto-save-mode'. Like other minor mode commands, `M-x
auto-save-mode' turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with
a zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles.
Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many
characters you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done.
The variable `auto-save-interval' specifies how many characters there
are between auto-saves. By default, it is 300.
Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while. The
variable `auto-save-timeout' says how many seconds Emacs should wait
before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage collection).
(The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is long; this
is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you are editing
long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount of time.)
Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things: first, it
makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the terminal for
a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you are actually
typing.
Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error. This
includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as `kill
%emacs', or disconnecting a phone line or network connection.
You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command `M-x
do-auto-save'.
File: emacs, Node: Recover, Prev: Auto Save Control, Up: Auto Save
Recovering Data from Auto-Saves
-------------------------------
You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss
of data with the command `M-x recover-file <RET> FILE <RET>'. This
visits FILE and then (after your confirmation) restores the contents
from its auto-save file `#FILE#'. You can then save with `C-x C-s' to
put the recovered text into FILE itself. For example, to recover file
`foo.c' from its auto-save file `#foo.c#', do:
M-x recover-file <RET> foo.c <RET>
yes <RET>
C-x C-s
Before asking for confirmation, `M-x recover-file' displays a
directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file,
so you can compare their sizes and dates. If the auto-save file is
older, `M-x recover-file' does not offer to read it.
If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you
were editing from their auto save files with the command `M-x
recover-session'. This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted
sessions. Move point to the one you choose, and type `C-c C-c'.
Then `recover-session' asks about each of the files that were being
edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file. If
you answer `y', it calls `recover-file', which works in its normal
fashion. It shows the dates of the original file and its auto-save
file, and asks once again whether to recover that file.
When `recover-session' is done, the files you've chosen to recover
are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only
this--saving them--updates the files themselves.
Interrupted sessions are recorded for later recovery in files named
`~/.saves-PID-HOSTNAME'. The `~/.saves' portion of these names comes
from the value of `auto-save-list-file-prefix'. You can arrange to
record sessions in a different place by setting that variable in your
`.emacs' file, but you'll have to redefine `recover-session' as well to
make it look in the new place. If you set `auto-save-list-file-prefix'
to `nil' in your `.emacs' file, sessions are not recorded for recovery.
File: emacs, Node: File Aliases, Next: Version Control, Prev: Auto Save, Up: Files
File Name Aliases
=================
Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file
names to refer to the same file. Hard links are alternate names that
refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one
of them is preferred. By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined
alias: when `foo' is a symbolic link to `bar', you can use either name
to refer to the file, but `bar' is the real name, while `foo' is just
an alias. More complex cases occur when symbolic links point to
directories.
If you visit two names for the same file, normally Emacs makes two
different buffers, but it warns you about the situation.
If you wish to avoid visiting the same file in two buffers under
different names, set the variable `find-file-existing-other-name' to a
non-`nil' value. Then `find-file' uses the existing buffer visiting
the file, no matter which of the file's names you specify.
If the variable `find-file-visit-truename' is non-`nil', then the
file name recorded for a buffer is the file's "truename" (made by
replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather than the
name you specify. Setting `find-file-visit-truename' also implies the
effect of `find-file-existing-other-name'.
File: emacs, Node: Version Control, Next: Directories, Prev: File Aliases, Up: Files
Version Control
===============
"Version control systems" are packages that can record multiple
versions of a source file, usually storing the unchanged parts of the
file just once. Version control systems also record history information
such as the creation time of each version, who created it, and a
description of what was changed in that version.
The Emacs version control interface is called VC. Its commands work
with three version control systems--RCS, CVS and SCCS. The GNU project
recommends RCS and CVS, which are free software and available from the
Free Software Foundation.
* Menu:
* Introduction to VC:: How version control works in general.
* VC Mode Line:: How the mode line shows version control status.
* Basic VC Editing:: How to edit a file under version control.
* Old Versions:: Examining and comparing old versions.
* Secondary VC Commands:: The commands used a little less frequently.
* Branches:: Multiple lines of development.
* Snapshots:: Sets of file versions treated as a unit.
* Miscellaneous VC:: Various other commands and features of VC.
* Customizing VC:: Variables that change VC's behavior.
File: emacs, Node: Introduction to VC, Next: VC Mode Line, Up: Version Control
Introduction to Version Control
-------------------------------
VC allows you to use a version control system from within Emacs,
integrating the version control operations smoothly with editing. VC
provides a uniform interface to version control, so that regardless of
which version control system is in use, you can use it the same way.
This section provides a general overview of version control, and
describes the version control systems that VC supports. You can skip
this section if you are already familiar with the version control system
you want to use.
* Menu:
* Version Systems:: Supported version control back-end systems.
* VC Concepts:: Words and concepts related to version control.
File: emacs, Node: Version Systems, Next: VC Concepts, Up: Introduction to VC
Supported Version Control Systems
.................................
VC currently works with three different version control systems or
"back ends": RCS, CVS, and SCCS.
RCS is a free version control system that is available from the Free
Software Foundation. It is perhaps the most mature of the supported
back ends, and the VC commands are conceptually closest to RCS. Almost
everything you can do with RCS can be done through VC.
CVS is built on top of RCS, and extends the features of RCS, allowing
for more sophisticated release management, and concurrent multi-user
development. VC supports basic editing operations under CVS, but for
some less common tasks you still need to call CVS from the command line.
Note also that before using CVS you must set up a repository, which is a
subject too complex to treat here.
SCCS is a proprietary but widely used version control system. In
terms of capabilities, it is the weakest of the three that VC supports.
VC compensates for certain features missing in SCCS (snapshots, for
example) by implementing them itself, but some other VC features, such
as multiple branches, are not available with SCCS. You should use SCCS
only if for some reason you cannot use RCS.
File: emacs, Node: VC Concepts, Prev: Version Systems, Up: Introduction to VC
Concepts of Version Control
...........................
When a file is under version control, we also say that it is
"registered" in the version control system. Each registered file has a
corresponding "master file" which represents the file's present state
plus its change history--enough to reconstruct the current version or
any earlier version. Usually the master file also records a "log
entry" for each version, describing in words what was changed in that
version.
The file that is maintained under version control is sometimes called
the "work file" corresponding to its master file. You edit the work
file and make changes in it, as you would with an ordinary file. (With
SCCS and RCS, you must "lock" the file before you start to edit it.)
After you are done with a set of changes, you "check the file in",
which records the changes in the master file, along with a log entry for
them.
With CVS, there are usually multiple work files corresponding to a
single master file--often each user has his own copy. It is also
possible to use RCS in this way, but this is not the usual way to use
RCS.
A version control system typically has some mechanism to coordinate
between users who want to change the same file. One method is
"locking" (analogous to the locking that Emacs uses to detect
simultaneous editing of a file, but distinct from it). The other method
is to merge your changes with other people's changes when you check them
in.
With version control locking, work files are normally read-only so
that you cannot change them. You ask the version control system to make
a work file writable for you by locking it; only one user can do this
at any given time. When you check in your changes, that unlocks the
file, making the work file read-only again. This allows other users to
lock the file to make further changes. SCCS always uses locking, and
RCS normally does.
The other alternative for RCS is to let each user modify the work
file at any time. In this mode, locking is not required, but it is
permitted; check-in is still the way to record a new version.
CVS normally allows each user to modify his own copy of the work file
at any time, but requires merging with changes from other users at
check-in time. However, CVS can also be set up to require locking.
(*note Backend Options::).
File: emacs, Node: VC Mode Line, Next: Basic VC Editing, Prev: Introduction to VC, Up: Version Control
Version Control and the Mode Line
---------------------------------
When you visit a file that is under version control, Emacs indicates
this on the mode line. For example, `RCS-1.3' says that RCS is used
for that file, and the current version is 1.3.
The character between the back-end name and the version number
indicates the version control status of the file. `-' means that the
work file is not locked (if locking is in use), or not modified (if
locking is not in use). `:' indicates that the file is locked, or that
it is modified. If the file is locked by some other user (for
instance, `jim'), that is displayed as `RCS:jim:1.3'.
File: emacs, Node: Basic VC Editing, Next: Old Versions, Prev: VC Mode Line, Up: Version Control
Basic Editing under Version Control
-----------------------------------
The principal VC command is an all-purpose command that performs
either locking or check-in, depending on the situation.
`C-x C-q'
`C-x v v'
Perform the next logical version control operation on this file.
Strictly speaking, the command for this job is `vc-next-action',
bound to `C-x v v'. However, the normal meaning of `C-x C-q' is to
make a read-only buffer writable, or vice versa; we have extended it to
do the same job properly for files managed by version control, by
performing the appropriate version control operations. When you type
`C-x C-q' on a registered file, it acts like `C-x v v'.
The precise action of this command depends on the state of the file,
and whether the version control system uses locking or not. SCCS and
RCS normally use locking; CVS normally does not use locking.
* Menu:
* VC with Locking:: RCS in its default mode, SCCS, and optionally CVS.
* Without Locking:: Without locking: default mode for CVS.
* Log Buffer:: Features available in log entry buffers.
File: emacs, Node: VC with Locking, Next: Without Locking, Up: Basic VC Editing
Basic Version Control with Locking
..................................
If locking is used for the file (as with SCCS, and RCS in its default
mode), `C-x C-q' can either lock a file or check it in:
* If the file is not locked, `C-x C-q' locks it, and makes it
writable so that you can change it.
* If the file is locked by you, and contains changes, `C-x C-q'
checks in the changes. In order to do this, it first reads the
log entry for the new version. *Note Log Buffer::.
* If the file is locked by you, but you have not changed it since you
locked it, `C-x C-q' releases the lock and makes the file read-only
again.
* If the file is locked by some other user, `C-x C-q' asks you
whether you want to "steal the lock" from that user. If you say
yes, the file becomes locked by you, but a message is sent to the
person who had formerly locked the file, to inform him of what has
happened.
These rules also apply when you use CVS in locking mode, except that
there is no such thing as stealing a lock.