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* CL: (cl). Partial Common Lisp support for Emacs Lisp.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
This file documents the GNU Emacs Common Lisp emulation package.
Copyright (C) 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in
the original English.
File: cl, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Up: (dir)
Common Lisp Extensions
**********************
This document describes a set of Emacs Lisp facilities borrowed from
Common Lisp. All the facilities are described here in detail. While
this document does not assume any prior knowledge of Common Lisp, it
does assume a basic familiarity with Emacs Lisp.
* Menu:
* Overview:: Installation, usage, etc.
* Program Structure:: Arglists, `eval-when', `defalias'
* Predicates:: `typep', `eql', and `equalp'
* Control Structure:: `setf', `when', `do', `loop', etc.
* Macros:: Destructuring, `define-compiler-macro'
* Declarations:: `proclaim', `declare', etc.
* Symbols:: Property lists, `gensym'
* Numbers:: Predicates, functions, random numbers
* Sequences:: Mapping, functions, searching, sorting
* Lists:: `cadr', `sublis', `member*', `assoc*', etc.
* Hash Tables:: `make-hash-table', `gethash', etc.
* Structures:: `defstruct'
* Assertions:: `check-type', `assert', `ignore-errors'.
* Efficiency Concerns:: Hints and techniques
* Common Lisp Compatibility:: All known differences with Steele
* Old CL Compatibility:: All known differences with old cl.el
* Porting Common Lisp:: Hints for porting Common Lisp code
* Function Index::
* Variable Index::
File: cl, Node: Overview, Next: Program Structure, Prev: Top, Up: Top
Overview
********
Common Lisp is a huge language, and Common Lisp systems tend to be
massive and extremely complex. Emacs Lisp, by contrast, is rather
minimalist in the choice of Lisp features it offers the programmer. As
Emacs Lisp programmers have grown in number, and the applications they
write have grown more ambitious, it has become clear that Emacs Lisp
could benefit from many of the conveniences of Common Lisp.
The "CL" package adds a number of Common Lisp functions and control
structures to Emacs Lisp. While not a 100% complete implementation of
Common Lisp, "CL" adds enough functionality to make Emacs Lisp
programming significantly more convenient.
Some Common Lisp features have been omitted from this package for
various reasons:
* Some features are too complex or bulky relative to their benefit
to Emacs Lisp programmers. CLOS and Common Lisp streams are fine
examples of this group.
* Other features cannot be implemented without modification to the
Emacs Lisp interpreter itself, such as multiple return values,
lexical scoping, case-insensitive symbols, and complex numbers.
The "CL" package generally makes no attempt to emulate these
features.
* Some features conflict with existing things in Emacs Lisp. For
example, Emacs' `assoc' function is incompatible with the Common
Lisp `assoc'. In such cases, this package usually adds the suffix
`*' to the function name of the Common Lisp version of the
function (e.g., `assoc*').
The package described here was written by Dave Gillespie,
`daveg@synaptics.com'. It is a total rewrite of the original 1986
`cl.el' package by Cesar Quiroz. Most features of the the Quiroz
package have been retained; any incompatibilities are noted in the
descriptions below. Care has been taken in this version to ensure that
each function is defined efficiently, concisely, and with minimal
impact on the rest of the Emacs environment.
* Menu:
* Usage:: How to use the CL package
* Organization:: The package's five component files
* Installation:: Compiling and installing CL
* Naming Conventions:: Notes on CL function names
File: cl, Node: Usage, Next: Organization, Prev: Overview, Up: Overview
Usage
=====
Lisp code that uses features from the "CL" package should include at
the beginning:
(require 'cl)
If you want to ensure that the new (Gillespie) version of "CL" is the
one that is present, add an additional `(require 'cl-19)' call:
(require 'cl)
(require 'cl-19)
The second call will fail (with "`cl-19.el' not found") if the old
`cl.el' package was in use.
It is safe to arrange to load "CL" at all times, e.g., in your
`.emacs' file. But it's a good idea, for portability, to `(require
'cl)' in your code even if you do this.
File: cl, Node: Organization, Next: Installation, Prev: Usage, Up: Overview
Organization
============
The Common Lisp package is organized into four files:
`cl.el'
This is the "main" file, which contains basic functions and
information about the package. This file is relatively
compact--about 700 lines.
`cl-extra.el'
This file contains the larger, more complex or unusual functions.
It is kept separate so that packages which only want to use Common
Lisp fundamentals like the `cadr' function won't need to pay the
overhead of loading the more advanced functions.
`cl-seq.el'
This file contains most of the advanced functions for operating on
sequences or lists, such as `delete-if' and `assoc*'.
`cl-macs.el'
This file contains the features of the packages which are macros
instead of functions. Macros expand when the caller is compiled,
not when it is run, so the macros generally only need to be
present when the byte-compiler is running (or when the macros are
used in uncompiled code such as a `.emacs' file). Most of the
macros of this package are isolated in `cl-macs.el' so that they
won't take up memory unless you are compiling.
The file `cl.el' includes all necessary `autoload' commands for the
functions and macros in the other three files. All you have to do is
`(require 'cl)', and `cl.el' will take care of pulling in the other
files when they are needed.
There is another file, `cl-compat.el', which defines some routines
from the older `cl.el' package that are no longer present in the new
package. This includes internal routines like `setelt' and
`zip-lists', deprecated features like `defkeyword', and an emulation of
the old-style multiple-values feature. *Note Old CL Compatibility::.
File: cl, Node: Installation, Next: Naming Conventions, Prev: Organization, Up: Overview
Installation
============
Installation of the "CL" package is simple: Just put the byte-compiled
files `cl.elc', `cl-extra.elc', `cl-seq.elc', `cl-macs.elc', and
`cl-compat.elc' into a directory on your `load-path'.
There are no special requirements to compile this package: The files
do not have to be loaded before they are compiled, nor do they need to
be compiled in any particular order.
You may choose to put the files into your main `lisp/' directory,
replacing the original `cl.el' file there. Or, you could put them into
a directory that comes before `lisp/' on your `load-path' so that the
old `cl.el' is effectively hidden.
Also, format the `cl.texinfo' file and put the resulting Info files
in the `info/' directory or another suitable place.
You may instead wish to leave this package's components all in their
own directory, and then add this directory to your `load-path' and
(Emacs 19 only) `Info-directory-list'. Add the directory to the front
of the list so the old "CL" package and its documentation are hidden.
File: cl, Node: Naming Conventions, Prev: Installation, Up: Overview
Naming Conventions
==================
Except where noted, all functions defined by this package have the same
names and calling conventions as their Common Lisp counterparts.
Following is a complete list of functions whose names were changed
from Common Lisp, usually to avoid conflicts with Emacs. In each case,
a `*' has been appended to the Common Lisp name to obtain the Emacs
name:
defun* defsubst* defmacro* function*
member* assoc* rassoc* get*
remove* delete* mapcar* sort*
floor* ceiling* truncate* round*
mod* rem* random* last*
Internal function and variable names in the package are prefixed by
`cl-'. Here is a complete list of functions *not* prefixed by `cl-'
which were not taken from Common Lisp:
member delete remove remq
rassoc floatp-safe lexical-let lexical-let*
callf callf2 letf letf*
defsubst* defalias add-hook eval-when-compile
(Most of these are Emacs 19 features provided to Emacs 18 users, or
introduced, like `remq', for reasons of symmetry with similar features.)
The following simple functions and macros are defined in `cl.el';
they do not cause other components like `cl-extra' to be loaded.
eql floatp-safe abs endp
evenp oddp plusp minusp
butlast nbutlast caar .. cddddr
list* ldiff rest first .. tenth
member [1] copy-list subst mapcar* [2]
adjoin [3] acons pairlis when
unless pop [4] push [4] pushnew [3,4]
incf [4] decf [4] proclaim declaim
add-hook
[1] This is the Emacs 19-compatible function, not `member*'.
[2] Only for one sequence argument or two list arguments.
[3] Only if `:test' is `eq', `equal', or unspecified, and `:key' is not
used.
[4] Only when PLACE is a plain variable name.
File: cl, Node: Program Structure, Next: Predicates, Prev: Overview, Up: Top
Program Structure
*****************
This section describes features of the "CL" package which have to do
with programs as a whole: advanced argument lists for functions, and
the `eval-when' construct.
* Menu:
* Argument Lists:: `&key', `&aux', `defun*', `defmacro*'.
* Time of Evaluation:: The `eval-when' construct.
* Function Aliases:: The `defalias' function.
File: cl, Node: Argument Lists, Next: Time of Evaluation, Prev: Program Structure, Up: Program Structure
Argument Lists
==============
Emacs Lisp's notation for argument lists of functions is a subset of
the Common Lisp notation. As well as the familiar `&optional' and
`&rest' markers, Common Lisp allows you to specify default values for
optional arguments, and it provides the additional markers `&key' and
`&aux'.
Since argument parsing is built-in to Emacs, there is no way for
this package to implement Common Lisp argument lists seamlessly.
Instead, this package defines alternates for several Lisp forms which
you must use if you need Common Lisp argument lists.
- Special Form: defun* NAME ARGLIST BODY...
This form is identical to the regular `defun' form, except that
ARGLIST is allowed to be a full Common Lisp argument list. Also,
the function body is enclosed in an implicit block called NAME;
*note Blocks and Exits::..
- Special Form: defsubst* NAME ARGLIST BODY...
This is just like `defun*', except that the function that is
defined is automatically proclaimed `inline', i.e., calls to it
may be expanded into in-line code by the byte compiler. This is
analogous to the `defsubst' form in Emacs 19; `defsubst*' uses a
different method (compiler macros) which works in all version of
Emacs, and also generates somewhat more efficient inline
expansions. In particular, `defsubst*' arranges for the
processing of keyword arguments, default values, etc., to be done
at compile-time whenever possible.
- Special Form: defmacro* NAME ARGLIST BODY...
This is identical to the regular `defmacro' form, except that
ARGLIST is allowed to be a full Common Lisp argument list. The
`&environment' keyword is supported as described in Steele. The
`&whole' keyword is supported only within destructured lists (see
below); top-level `&whole' cannot be implemented with the current
Emacs Lisp interpreter. The macro expander body is enclosed in an
implicit block called NAME.
- Special Form: function* SYMBOL-OR-LAMBDA
This is identical to the regular `function' form, except that if
the argument is a `lambda' form then that form may use a full
Common Lisp argument list.
Also, all forms (such as `defsetf' and `flet') defined in this
package that include ARGLISTs in their syntax allow full Common Lisp
argument lists.
Note that it is *not* necessary to use `defun*' in order to have
access to most "CL" features in your function. These features are
always present; `defun*''s only difference from `defun' is its more
flexible argument lists and its implicit block.
The full form of a Common Lisp argument list is
(VAR...
&optional (VAR INITFORM SVAR)...
&rest VAR
&key ((KEYWORD VAR) INITFORM SVAR)...
&aux (VAR INITFORM)...)
Each of the five argument list sections is optional. The SVAR,
INITFORM, and KEYWORD parts are optional; if they are omitted, then
`(VAR)' may be written simply `VAR'.
The first section consists of zero or more "required" arguments.
These arguments must always be specified in a call to the function;
there is no difference between Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp as far as
required arguments are concerned.
The second section consists of "optional" arguments. These
arguments may be specified in the function call; if they are not,
INITFORM specifies the default value used for the argument. (No
INITFORM means to use `nil' as the default.) The INITFORM is evaluated
with the bindings for the preceding arguments already established; `(a
&optional (b (1+ a)))' matches one or two arguments, with the second
argument defaulting to one plus the first argument. If the SVAR is
specified, it is an auxiliary variable which is bound to `t' if the
optional argument was specified, or to `nil' if the argument was
omitted. If you don't use an SVAR, then there will be no way for your
function to tell whether it was called with no argument, or with the
default value passed explicitly as an argument.
The third section consists of a single "rest" argument. If more
arguments were passed to the function than are accounted for by the
required and optional arguments, those extra arguments are collected
into a list and bound to the "rest" argument variable. Common Lisp's
`&rest' is equivalent to that of Emacs Lisp. Common Lisp accepts
`&body' as a synonym for `&rest' in macro contexts; this package
accepts it all the time.
The fourth section consists of "keyword" arguments. These are
optional arguments which are specified by name rather than positionally
in the argument list. For example,
(defun* foo (a &optional b &key c d (e 17)))
defines a function which may be called with one, two, or more
arguments. The first two arguments are bound to `a' and `b' in the
usual way. The remaining arguments must be pairs of the form `:c',
`:d', or `:e' followed by the value to be bound to the corresponding
argument variable. (Symbols whose names begin with a colon are called
"keywords", and they are self-quoting in the same way as `nil' and `t'.)
For example, the call `(foo 1 2 :d 3 :c 4)' sets the five arguments
to 1, 2, 4, 3, and 17, respectively. If the same keyword appears more
than once in the function call, the first occurrence takes precedence
over the later ones. Note that it is not possible to specify keyword
arguments without specifying the optional argument `b' as well, since
`(foo 1 :c 2)' would bind `b' to the keyword `:c', then signal an error
because `2' is not a valid keyword.
If a KEYWORD symbol is explicitly specified in the argument list as
shown in the above diagram, then that keyword will be used instead of
just the variable name prefixed with a colon. You can specify a
KEYWORD symbol which does not begin with a colon at all, but such
symbols will not be self-quoting; you will have to quote them
explicitly with an apostrophe in the function call.
Ordinarily it is an error to pass an unrecognized keyword to a
function, e.g., `(foo 1 2 :c 3 :goober 4)'. You can ask Lisp to ignore
unrecognized keywords, either by adding the marker `&allow-other-keys'
after the keyword section of the argument list, or by specifying an
`:allow-other-keys' argument in the call whose value is non-`nil'. If
the function uses both `&rest' and `&key' at the same time, the "rest"
argument is bound to the keyword list as it appears in the call. For
example:
(defun* find-thing (thing &rest rest &key need &allow-other-keys)
(or (apply 'member* thing thing-list :allow-other-keys t rest)
(if need (error "Thing not found"))))
This function takes a `:need' keyword argument, but also accepts other
keyword arguments which are passed on to the `member*' function.
`allow-other-keys' is used to keep both `find-thing' and `member*' from
complaining about each others' keywords in the arguments.
As a (significant) performance optimization, this package implements
the scan for keyword arguments by calling `memq' to search for keywords
in a "rest" argument. Technically speaking, this is incorrect, since
`memq' looks at the odd-numbered values as well as the even-numbered
keywords. The net effect is that if you happen to pass a keyword symbol
as the *value* of another keyword argument, where that keyword symbol
happens to equal the name of a valid keyword argument of the same
function, then the keyword parser will become confused. This minor bug
can only affect you if you use keyword symbols as general-purpose data
in your program; this practice is strongly discouraged in Emacs Lisp.
The fifth section of the argument list consists of "auxiliary
variables". These are not really arguments at all, but simply
variables which are bound to `nil' or to the specified INITFORMS during
execution of the function. There is no difference between the
following two functions, except for a matter of stylistic taste:
(defun* foo (a b &aux (c (+ a b)) d)
BODY)
(defun* foo (a b)
(let ((c (+ a b)) d)
BODY))
Argument lists support "destructuring". In Common Lisp,
destructuring is only allowed with `defmacro'; this package allows it
with `defun*' and other argument lists as well. In destructuring, any
argument variable (VAR in the above diagram) can be replaced by a list
of variables, or more generally, a recursive argument list. The
corresponding argument value must be a list whose elements match this
recursive argument list. For example:
(defmacro* dolist ((var listform &optional resultform)
&rest body)
...)
This says that the first argument of `dolist' must be a list of two
or three items; if there are other arguments as well as this list, they
are stored in `body'. All features allowed in regular argument lists
are allowed in these recursive argument lists. In addition, the clause
`&whole VAR' is allowed at the front of a recursive argument list. It
binds VAR to the whole list being matched; thus `(&whole all a b)'
matches a list of two things, with `a' bound to the first thing, `b'
bound to the second thing, and `all' bound to the list itself. (Common
Lisp allows `&whole' in top-level `defmacro' argument lists as well,
but Emacs Lisp does not support this usage.)
One last feature of destructuring is that the argument list may be
dotted, so that the argument list `(a b . c)' is functionally
equivalent to `(a b &rest c)'.
If the optimization quality `safety' is set to 0 (*note
Declarations::.), error checking for wrong number of arguments and
invalid keyword arguments is disabled. By default, argument lists are
rigorously checked.
File: cl, Node: Time of Evaluation, Next: Function Aliases, Prev: Argument Lists, Up: Program Structure
Time of Evaluation
==================
Normally, the byte-compiler does not actually execute the forms in a
file it compiles. For example, if a file contains `(setq foo t)', the
act of compiling it will not actually set `foo' to `t'. This is true
even if the `setq' was a top-level form (i.e., not enclosed in a
`defun' or other form). Sometimes, though, you would like to have
certain top-level forms evaluated at compile-time. For example, the
compiler effectively evaluates `defmacro' forms at compile-time so that
later parts of the file can refer to the macros that are defined.
- Special Form: eval-when (SITUATIONS...) FORMS...
This form controls when the body FORMS are evaluated. The
SITUATIONS list may contain any set of the symbols `compile',
`load', and `eval' (or their long-winded ANSI equivalents,
`:compile-toplevel', `:load-toplevel', and `:execute').
The `eval-when' form is handled differently depending on whether
or not it is being compiled as a top-level form. Specifically, it
gets special treatment if it is being compiled by a command such
as `byte-compile-file' which compiles files or buffers of code,
and it appears either literally at the top level of the file or
inside a top-level `progn'.
For compiled top-level `eval-when's, the body FORMS are executed
at compile-time if `compile' is in the SITUATIONS list, and the
FORMS are written out to the file (to be executed at load-time) if
`load' is in the SITUATIONS list.
For non-compiled-top-level forms, only the `eval' situation is
relevant. (This includes forms executed by the interpreter, forms
compiled with `byte-compile' rather than `byte-compile-file', and
non-top-level forms.) The `eval-when' acts like a `progn' if
`eval' is specified, and like `nil' (ignoring the body FORMS) if
not.
The rules become more subtle when `eval-when's are nested; consult
Steele (second edition) for the gruesome details (and some
gruesome examples).
Some simple examples:
;; Top-level forms in foo.el:
(eval-when (compile) (setq foo1 'bar))
(eval-when (load) (setq foo2 'bar))
(eval-when (compile load) (setq foo3 'bar))
(eval-when (eval) (setq foo4 'bar))
(eval-when (eval compile) (setq foo5 'bar))
(eval-when (eval load) (setq foo6 'bar))
(eval-when (eval compile load) (setq foo7 'bar))
When `foo.el' is compiled, these variables will be set during the
compilation itself:
foo1 foo3 foo5 foo7 ; `compile'
When `foo.elc' is loaded, these variables will be set:
foo2 foo3 foo6 foo7 ; `load'
And if `foo.el' is loaded uncompiled, these variables will be set:
foo4 foo5 foo6 foo7 ; `eval'
If these seven `eval-when's had been, say, inside a `defun', then
the first three would have been equivalent to `nil' and the last
four would have been equivalent to the corresponding `setq's.
Note that `(eval-when (load eval) ...)' is equivalent to `(progn
...)' in all contexts. The compiler treats certain top-level
forms, like `defmacro' (sort-of) and `require', as if they were
wrapped in `(eval-when (compile load eval) ...)'.
Emacs 19 includes two special forms related to `eval-when'. One of
these, `eval-when-compile', is not quite equivalent to any `eval-when'
construct and is described below. This package defines a version of
`eval-when-compile' for the benefit of Emacs 18 users.
The other form, `(eval-and-compile ...)', is exactly equivalent to
`(eval-when (compile load eval) ...)' and so is not itself defined by
this package.
- Special Form: eval-when-compile FORMS...
The FORMS are evaluated at compile-time; at execution time, this
form acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value. Used at
top-level, `eval-when-compile' is just like `eval-when (compile
eval)'. In other contexts, `eval-when-compile' allows code to be
evaluated once at compile-time for efficiency or other reasons.
This form is similar to the `#.' syntax of true Common Lisp.
- Special Form: load-time-value FORM
The FORM is evaluated at load-time; at execution time, this form
acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value.
Early Common Lisp had a `#,' syntax that was similar to this, but
ANSI Common Lisp replaced it with `load-time-value' and gave it
more well-defined semantics.
In a compiled file, `load-time-value' arranges for FORM to be
evaluated when the `.elc' file is loaded and then used as if it
were a quoted constant. In code compiled by `byte-compile' rather
than `byte-compile-file', the effect is identical to
`eval-when-compile'. In uncompiled code, both `eval-when-compile'
and `load-time-value' act exactly like `progn'.
(defun report ()
(insert "This function was executed on: "
(current-time-string)
", compiled on: "
(eval-when-compile (current-time-string))
;; or '#.(current-time-string) in real Common Lisp
", and loaded on: "
(load-time-value (current-time-string))))
Byte-compiled, the above defun will result in the following code
(or its compiled equivalent, of course) in the `.elc' file:
(setq --temp-- (current-time-string))
(defun report ()
(insert "This function was executed on: "
(current-time-string)
", compiled on: "
'"Wed Jun 23 18:33:43 1993"
", and loaded on: "
--temp--))
File: cl, Node: Function Aliases, Prev: Time of Evaluation, Up: Program Structure
Function Aliases
================
This section describes a feature from GNU Emacs 19 which this package
makes available in other versions of Emacs.
- Function: defalias SYMBOL FUNCTION
This function sets SYMBOL's function cell to FUNCTION. It is
equivalent to `fset', except that in GNU Emacs 19 it also records
the setting in `load-history' so that it can be undone by a later
`unload-feature'.
In other versions of Emacs, `defalias' is a synonym for `fset'.
File: cl, Node: Predicates, Next: Control Structure, Prev: Program Structure, Up: Top
Predicates
**********
This section describes functions for testing whether various facts are
true or false.
* Menu:
* Type Predicates:: `typep', `deftype', and `coerce'
* Equality Predicates:: `eql' and `equalp'
File: cl, Node: Type Predicates, Next: Equality Predicates, Prev: Predicates, Up: Predicates
Type Predicates
===============
The "CL" package defines a version of the Common Lisp `typep' predicate.
- Function: typep OBJECT TYPE
Check if OBJECT is of type TYPE, where TYPE is a (quoted) type
name of the sort used by Common Lisp. For example, `(typep foo
'integer)' is equivalent to `(integerp foo)'.
The TYPE argument to the above function is either a symbol or a list
beginning with a symbol.
* If the type name is a symbol, Emacs appends `-p' to the symbol
name to form the name of a predicate function for testing the
type. (Built-in predicates whose names end in `p' rather than
`-p' are used when appropriate.)
* The type symbol `t' stands for the union of all types. `(typep
OBJECT t)' is always true. Likewise, the type symbol `nil' stands
for nothing at all, and `(typep OBJECT nil)' is always false.
* The type symbol `null' represents the symbol `nil'. Thus `(typep
OBJECT 'null)' is equivalent to `(null OBJECT)'.
* The type symbol `real' is a synonym for `number', and `fixnum' is
a synonym for `integer'.
* The type symbols `character' and `string-char' match integers in
the range from 0 to 255.
* The type symbol `float' uses the `floatp-safe' predicate defined
by this package rather than `floatp', so it will work correctly
even in Emacs versions without floating-point support.
* The type list `(integer LOW HIGH)' represents all integers between
LOW and HIGH, inclusive. Either bound may be a list of a single
integer to specify an exclusive limit, or a `*' to specify no
limit. The type `(integer * *)' is thus equivalent to `integer'.
* Likewise, lists beginning with `float', `real', or `number'
represent numbers of that type falling in a particular range.
* Lists beginning with `and', `or', and `not' form combinations of
types. For example, `(or integer (float 0 *))' represents all
objects that are integers or non-negative floats.
* Lists beginning with `member' or `member*' represent objects `eql'
to any of the following values. For example, `(member 1 2 3 4)'
is equivalent to `(integer 1 4)', and `(member nil)' is equivalent
to `null'.
* Lists of the form `(satisfies PREDICATE)' represent all objects
for which PREDICATE returns true when called with that object as
an argument.
The following function and macro (not technically predicates) are
related to `typep'.
- Function: coerce OBJECT TYPE
This function attempts to convert OBJECT to the specified TYPE.
If OBJECT is already of that type as determined by `typep', it is
simply returned. Otherwise, certain types of conversions will be
made: If TYPE is any sequence type (`string', `list', etc.) then
OBJECT will be converted to that type if possible. If TYPE is
`character', then strings of length one and symbols with
one-character names can be coerced. If TYPE is `float', then
integers can be coerced in versions of Emacs that support floats.
In all other circumstances, `coerce' signals an error.
- Special Form: deftype NAME ARGLIST FORMS...
This macro defines a new type called NAME. It is similar to
`defmacro' in many ways; when NAME is encountered as a type name,
the body FORMS are evaluated and should return a type specifier
that is equivalent to the type. The ARGLIST is a Common Lisp
argument list of the sort accepted by `defmacro*'. The type
specifier `(NAME ARGS...)' is expanded by calling the expander
with those arguments; the type symbol `NAME' is expanded by
calling the expander with no arguments. The ARGLIST is processed
the same as for `defmacro*' except that optional arguments without
explicit defaults use `*' instead of `nil' as the "default"
default. Some examples:
(deftype null () '(satisfies null)) ; predefined
(deftype list () '(or null cons)) ; predefined
(deftype unsigned-byte (&optional bits)
(list 'integer 0 (if (eq bits '*) bits (1- (lsh 1 bits)))))
(unsigned-byte 8) == (integer 0 255)
(unsigned-byte) == (integer 0 *)
unsigned-byte == (integer 0 *)
The last example shows how the Common Lisp `unsigned-byte' type
specifier could be implemented if desired; this package does not
implement `unsigned-byte' by default.
The `typecase' and `check-type' macros also use type names. *Note
Conditionals::. *Note Assertions::. The `map', `concatenate', and
`merge' functions take type-name arguments to specify the type of
sequence to return. *Note Sequences::.
File: cl, Node: Equality Predicates, Prev: Type Predicates, Up: Predicates
Equality Predicates
===================
This package defines two Common Lisp predicates, `eql' and `equalp'.
- Function: eql A B
This function is almost the same as `eq', except that if A and B
are numbers of the same type, it compares them for numeric
equality (as if by `equal' instead of `eq'). This makes a
difference only for versions of Emacs that are compiled with
floating-point support, such as Emacs 19. Emacs floats are
allocated objects just like cons cells, which means that `(eq 3.0
3.0)' will not necessarily be true--if the two `3.0's were
allocated separately, the pointers will be different even though
the numbers are the same. But `(eql 3.0 3.0)' will always be true.
The types of the arguments must match, so `(eql 3 3.0)' is still
false.
Note that Emacs integers are "direct" rather than allocated, which
basically means `(eq 3 3)' will always be true. Thus `eq' and
`eql' behave differently only if floating-point numbers are
involved, and are indistinguishable on Emacs versions that don't
support floats.
There is a slight inconsistency with Common Lisp in the treatment
of positive and negative zeros. Some machines, notably those with
IEEE standard arithmetic, represent `+0' and `-0' as distinct
values. Normally this doesn't matter because the standard
specifies that `(= 0.0 -0.0)' should always be true, and this is
indeed what Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp do. But the Common Lisp
standard states that `(eql 0.0 -0.0)' and `(equal 0.0 -0.0)' should
be false on IEEE-like machines; Emacs Lisp does not do this, and in
fact the only known way to distinguish between the two zeros in
Emacs Lisp is to `format' them and check for a minus sign.
- Function: equalp A B
This function is a more flexible version of `equal'. In
particular, it compares strings case-insensitively, and it compares
numbers without regard to type (so that `(equalp 3 3.0)' is true).
Vectors and conses are compared recursively. All other objects
are compared as if by `equal'.
This function differs from Common Lisp `equalp' in several
respects. First, Common Lisp's `equalp' also compares
*characters* case-insensitively, which would be impractical in
this package since Emacs does not distinguish between integers and
characters. In keeping with the idea that strings are less
vector-like in Emacs Lisp, this package's `equalp' also will not
compare strings against vectors of integers. Finally, Common
Lisp's `equalp' compares hash tables without regard to ordering,
whereas this package simply compares hash tables in terms of their
underlying structure (which means vectors for Lucid Emacs 19 hash
tables, or lists for other hash tables).
Also note that the Common Lisp functions `member' and `assoc' use
`eql' to compare elements, whereas Emacs Lisp follows the MacLisp
tradition and uses `equal' for these two functions. In Emacs, use
`member*' and `assoc*' to get functions which use `eql' for comparisons.
File: cl, Node: Control Structure, Next: Macros, Prev: Predicates, Up: Top
Control Structure
*****************
The features described in the following sections implement various
advanced control structures, including the powerful `setf' facility and
a number of looping and conditional constructs.
* Menu:
* Assignment:: The `psetq' form
* Generalized Variables:: `setf', `incf', `push', etc.
* Variable Bindings:: `progv', `lexical-let', `flet', `macrolet'
* Conditionals:: `when', `unless', `case', `typecase'
* Blocks and Exits:: `block', `return', `return-from'
* Iteration:: `do', `dotimes', `dolist', `do-symbols'
* Loop Facility:: The Common Lisp `loop' macro
* Multiple Values:: `values', `multiple-value-bind', etc.
File: cl, Node: Assignment, Next: Generalized Variables, Prev: Control Structure, Up: Control Structure
Assignment
==========
The `psetq' form is just like `setq', except that multiple assignments
are done in parallel rather than sequentially.
- Special Form: psetq [SYMBOL FORM]...
This special form (actually a macro) is used to assign to several
variables simultaneously. Given only one SYMBOL and FORM, it has
the same effect as `setq'. Given several SYMBOL and FORM pairs,
it evaluates all the FORMs in advance and then stores the
corresponding variables afterwards.
(setq x 2 y 3)
(setq x (+ x y) y (* x y))
x
=> 5
y ; `y' was computed after `x' was set.
=> 15
(setq x 2 y 3)
(psetq x (+ x y) y (* x y))
x
=> 5
y ; `y' was computed before `x' was set.
=> 6
The simplest use of `psetq' is `(psetq x y y x)', which exchanges
the values of two variables. (The `rotatef' form provides an even
more convenient way to swap two variables; *note Modify Macros::..)
`psetq' always returns `nil'.
File: cl, Node: Generalized Variables, Next: Variable Bindings, Prev: Assignment, Up: Control Structure
Generalized Variables
=====================
A "generalized variable" or "place form" is one of the many places in
Lisp memory where values can be stored. The simplest place form is a
regular Lisp variable. But the cars and cdrs of lists, elements of
arrays, properties of symbols, and many other locations are also places
where Lisp values are stored.
The `setf' form is like `setq', except that it accepts arbitrary
place forms on the left side rather than just symbols. For example,
`(setf (car a) b)' sets the car of `a' to `b', doing the same operation
as `(setcar a b)' but without having to remember two separate functions
for setting and accessing every type of place.
Generalized variables are analogous to "lvalues" in the C language,
where `x = a[i]' gets an element from an array and `a[i] = x' stores an
element using the same notation. Just as certain forms like `a[i]' can
be lvalues in C, there is a set of forms that can be generalized
variables in Lisp.
* Menu:
* Basic Setf:: `setf' and place forms
* Modify Macros:: `incf', `push', `rotatef', `letf', `callf', etc.
* Customizing Setf:: `define-modify-macro', `defsetf', `define-setf-method'
File: cl, Node: Basic Setf, Next: Modify Macros, Prev: Generalized Variables, Up: Generalized Variables
Basic Setf
----------
The `setf' macro is the most basic way to operate on generalized
variables.
- Special Form: setf [PLACE FORM]...
This macro evaluates FORM and stores it in PLACE, which must be a
valid generalized variable form. If there are several PLACE and
FORM pairs, the assignments are done sequentially just as with
`setq'. `setf' returns the value of the last FORM.
The following Lisp forms will work as generalized variables, and
so may legally appear in the PLACE argument of `setf':
* A symbol naming a variable. In other words, `(setf x y)' is
exactly equivalent to `(setq x y)', and `setq' itself is
strictly speaking redundant now that `setf' exists. Many
programmers continue to prefer `setq' for setting simple
variables, though, purely for stylistic or historical reasons.
The macro `(setf x y)' actually expands to `(setq x y)', so
there is no performance penalty for using it in compiled code.
* A call to any of the following Lisp functions:
car cdr caar .. cddddr
nth rest first .. tenth
aref elt nthcdr
symbol-function symbol-value symbol-plist
get get* getf
gethash subseq
Note that for `nthcdr' and `getf', the list argument of the
function must itself be a valid PLACE form. For example,
`(setf (nthcdr 0 foo) 7)' will set `foo' itself to 7. Note
that `push' and `pop' on an `nthcdr' place can be used to
insert or delete at any position in a list. The use of
`nthcdr' as a PLACE form is an extension to standard Common
Lisp.
* The following Emacs-specific functions are also `setf'-able.
(Some of these are defined only in Emacs 19 or only in Lucid
Emacs.)
buffer-file-name marker-position
buffer-modified-p match-data
buffer-name mouse-position
buffer-string overlay-end
buffer-substring overlay-get
current-buffer overlay-start
current-case-table point
current-column point-marker
current-global-map point-max
current-input-mode point-min
current-local-map process-buffer
current-window-configuration process-filter
default-file-modes process-sentinel
default-value read-mouse-position
documentation-property screen-height
extent-data screen-menubar
extent-end-position screen-width
extent-start-position selected-window
face-background selected-screen
face-background-pixmap selected-frame
face-font standard-case-table
face-foreground syntax-table
face-underline-p window-buffer
file-modes window-dedicated-p
frame-height window-display-table
frame-parameters window-height
frame-visible-p window-hscroll
frame-width window-point
get-register window-start
getenv window-width
global-key-binding x-get-cut-buffer
keymap-parent x-get-cutbuffer
local-key-binding x-get-secondary-selection
mark x-get-selection
mark-marker
Most of these have directly corresponding "set" functions,
like `use-local-map' for `current-local-map', or `goto-char'
for `point'. A few, like `point-min', expand to longer
sequences of code when they are `setf''d (`(narrow-to-region
x (point-max))' in this case).
* A call of the form `(substring SUBPLACE N [M])', where
SUBPLACE is itself a legal generalized variable whose current
value is a string, and where the value stored is also a
string. The new string is spliced into the specified part of
the destination string. For example:
(setq a (list "hello" "world"))
=> ("hello" "world")
(cadr a)
=> "world"
(substring (cadr a) 2 4)
=> "rl"
(setf (substring (cadr a) 2 4) "o")
=> "o"
(cadr a)
=> "wood"
a
=> ("hello" "wood")
The generalized variable `buffer-substring', listed above,
also works in this way by replacing a portion of the current
buffer.
* A call of the form `(apply 'FUNC ...)' or `(apply (function
FUNC) ...)', where FUNC is a `setf'-able function whose store
function is "suitable" in the sense described in Steele's
book; since none of the standard Emacs place functions are
suitable in this sense, this feature is only interesting when
used with places you define yourself with
`define-setf-method' or the long form of `defsetf'.
* A macro call, in which case the macro is expanded and `setf'
is applied to the resulting form.
* Any form for which a `defsetf' or `define-setf-method' has
been made.
Using any forms other than these in the PLACE argument to `setf'
will signal an error.
The `setf' macro takes care to evaluate all subforms in the proper
left-to-right order; for example,
(setf (aref vec (incf i)) i)
looks like it will evaluate `(incf i)' exactly once, before the
following access to `i'; the `setf' expander will insert temporary
variables as necessary to ensure that it does in fact work this
way no matter what setf-method is defined for `aref'. (In this
case, `aset' would be used and no such steps would be necessary
since `aset' takes its arguments in a convenient order.)
However, if the PLACE form is a macro which explicitly evaluates
its arguments in an unusual order, this unusual order will be
preserved. Adapting an example from Steele, given
(defmacro wrong-order (x y) (list 'aref y x))
the form `(setf (wrong-order A B) 17)' will evaluate B first, then
A, just as in an actual call to `wrong-order'.